I.    Developed film projected onto raw film stock

                        e.    Copy master negative onto reversal film produces a negative from which release prints (used in theatres) are struck

                        f.    In exhibition, projectors aim beam of light through each frame of release print as it advances

                        g.    Film is wound around platter and a claw mechanism pulls each frame into place at a speed of 24 frames per second

                        h.    Projectors have two-bladed shutter flashing each frame twice so viewers see 48 images per second

                        i.    Ability to perceive sequence as continuous is due to two properties of human vision

                                i.    Persistence of vision (brain holds image for a few seconds)

                                ii.    Phi Phenomenon (eye perceives two lights flashing on and off as one light moving)

                        j.    There is a history of subliminal advertising being done with single frames interspersed with film

                        k.    Many advantages

                               i.    Resolution (18 million pixels in 35 mm frame compared to 300-400,000 in video)

                                ii.    Apparent higher degree of detail in dark and light areas due to wider exposure latitude or dynamic range (13 stops vs. 9 on video)

                                iii.    Color less flat and harsh compared to video

                        l.    Some disadvantages

                                i.    Slow and expensive

                                ii.    Equipment expensive and bulky

                                iii.    Storing and shipping inconvenient

                                iv.    Difficult for individuals to own equipment to view film

        B.    Video

                1.    Electronic signal recorded on tape

                        a.    Analog

                        b.    Digital

                2.    Images created by charged coupler devices (CCDs)

                        a.    Silicon chips with thousands of sensors which convert light to electronic signals

                3.    Video cameras use three (RGB) CCDs to create full spectrum of color

                4.    Digital video can be compressed and stored on computers using algorithms which can compress information and store areas rather than pixels

                5.    Reproduced by monitors or projectors with three electron guns (RGB)

                6.    Standard video format in US (NTSC-National Television Standards Committee) produces 525 lines with a rate of 29.97 frames per sec.

                7.    European PAL uses 625 lines at 25 fps.

                8.    Telecine machines transfer film to video

                        a.    To sync, film is slowed down from 24 fps to 23.976 fps which creates an extra frame

                        b.    Not necessary with PAL

                9.    Transferring film to video can involve image manipulation

                        a.    Panning and scanning (converting widescreen to television)

                        b.    Altering Aspect Ratio

                        c.    Letterboxing

                        d.    New HD sets and projectors may reduce need for manipulation

                10.    Disadvantages

                        a.    Resolution

                        b.    Depth of field

                        c.    Videotape degrades and copies are progressively poorer

                11.    Advantages

                        a.    New videocameras

                                i.    Can shoot at 24 fps

                                ii.    Higher resolution

                        b.    Digital Videotape

                        c.    DVD storage

                        d.    Inexpensive software

                        e.    Can be distributed by internet or satellite

                        f.    HTDV will soon be worldwide standard

III.    Camerawork

        A.    Cinematography involves both spatial characteristics of the frame and the temporal or time-dependent character of the film medium

                1.    Narrative fiction films tell stories

                2.    Documentaries recount

                3.    Avant-Garde films create new combinations of image and sounds

        B.    All three types of film unfold in space and time before the viewer

        C.    The Shot (single uniterrupted series of frames) is basic unit of expression

                1.    An image whose meaning unfolds over time

                2.    Vary in length from single frame to uninterrupted exposure of a full roll of motion picture film (8 minutes)

        D.    A Scene

                1. Several shots edited together

                2.  Coherent narrative unit with beginning, middle and end

        E.    Planning

                1.    Each shot planned ahead of time

                        a.    Storyboards

                                i.   Drawings

                                ii.    Photographs

                        b.    Shot lists

                        c.    Improvisations

                2.    DP designs Set-Ups

                        a.    Positioning

                                i.    Actors

                                ii.    Cameras

                                iii.    Lighting Equipment

        F.    Takes

                1.    Not shot in chronological order

                2.    Usually several for each shot

                3.    Editor and Director choose them during post production

                4.    Unused Takes are Out-Takes

                5.    Uninterrupted shots of more than one minute are Long Takes

                        a.    Build dramatic tension

                        b.    Emphasize continuity of time and space

                        c.    Allow directors to focus on movement of actors in the space of the mise en scene

        G.    Alteration of speed

                 1.    Used to compress or expand time or affect viewers' perception of time

                  2..    Slow Motion

                            a.    Camera records images at a speed faster than what will be projected

                                    i.    More frames being produced at fast speed will slow down action when projected normally

                   3..    Fast Motion

                            a.    Camera records images as a speed slower than what will be projected

                                    i.    Called undercranking before days of motorized camera

                    4.    Stop Motion

                            a.    Used in all animation

                    5.    Go-Motion

                            a.    Developed by Industrial Light and Magic

                                    i.    Motorized puppet or model moves within a single frame to create sense of blur

                    6.    Time-Lapse

                            a.    Very few frames shot over long period

                    7.    Frozen Time Moment

                            a.    Many still images taken from many viewpoints later animated to show frozen actor moving in space

                                    i.    Used in The Matrix

            H.    Camera in Space

                    1.    Positioning and movement of camera affects viewer's understanding of space

                    2.    Affects the way viewer's perceive

                            a.    Characters

                            b.    Events

                            c.    Objects

                    3.    Can force audience to adopt perspective of single character (Rear Window-voyeurism)

                    4.    Can force audience to see world through eyes of a vicious killer (Halloween)

                    5.    Variables

                            a.    Height

                                    i.    Usually eye-level

                                    ii.    Can be used to evoke

                                            I.    Tension (Jaws)

                                            II.    Different culture (Japanese films-people sit on floor)

                                            III.    Eeriness (The Shining)

                            b.    Angle

                                    i.    High Angle

                                            I.    Minimizes subject (Citizen Kane)

                                            II.    Distances viewer (Films with snipers)

                                     ii.    Low Angle

                                            I.    Exaggerate size and volume of subject (Thatcher statue in Citizen Kane)

                                            II.    Show power (Citizen Kane)

                                     iii.    Canted (or Dutch) Angle

                                            I.    Signifies imbalance or loss of control

                                    iv.    Overhead Shot (Bird's Eye View)

                                            I.    Shows Power (Spiderman)

                                            II.    Creates shock (Stair scene in Psycho)

           I.    Camera Distance

           J.    Camera Movement

IV.    Lenses and Filters

           A.    Introduction

                    1.    Like human eye

                            a.    Aperature (iris)

                            b.    Film Stock (retina)

                    2.    A scientific apparatus

                            a.    Needs to be callibrated

                            b.    Requires a focus puller

                    3.    Can tell a story

                            a.    Selective focus

           B.    Visual Characteristics

                    1.    Depth of Field

                            a.    Longer focal length is less

                            b.    Shorter focal length is more

                    2.    Focal Length (mm from film)

                            a.    Normal

                                    i.    27-75 mm

                                    ii.    Approximates human eye

                            b.    Wide Angle

                                    i.    <27 mm

                                    ii.    Exaggerates depth

                                            I.    Objects in background look smaller than they are

                                            II.    Actors moving from background to foreground do so faster than expected

                                            III.   Parallel lines converge

                            c.    Extreme Wide Angle (fish eye)

                                    i.    <17.5 mm

                                    ii.    Distorts images so all straight lines are curved

                            d.    Telephoto

                                    i.    75-1000 mm

                                    ii.    Compresses distance between foreground and background

                                    iii.    Slow down the motion of object moving toward camera

                                    iv.    Inhibits convergence of parallel lines

                                    v.    Shallow depth of field

                                    vi.    Rack focus (shifting from one plane to another)

                            e.    Zoom Lens

                                    i.    Variable focal length

                                    ii.    Changes size without changing distance from camera

                                    iii.    Stays in focus during zoom

            C.    Combining Camera Movement and Lens Movement

                    1.    Trombone Shot

                            a.    Hitchcock used on staircase in Vertigo

                                    i.    Camera tracked in as lens zoomed out

                                    ii.    Unsettling effect as depth of field increased while image remained same size

                            b.    Scorsese used in Goodfellas

                                    i.    Camera zoomed in and tracked out

                                    ii.    Subjects look the same but background goes out of focus

            D.    Filters and Diffusers

                    1.    Change quality of light entering lens by absorbing certain wavelengths

                    2.    Affect

                            a.    Contrast

                            b.    Sharpness

                            c.    Color

                            d.    Light Sensitivity

                    3.    Neutral-Density Filters

                            a.    Absorb all wavelengths and permit less light overall to strike film stock

                    4.    Polarizing Filters

                            a.    Increase color saturation and contrast in outdoor shots

                    5.    Diffusion Filters

                            a.    Bend light coming into lens, blurring the image

                    6.    Fog Filters

                            a.    Glass surface with numerous etched spots that refract light, creating appearance of water droplets.

                            b.    Can be accomplished with Vasolene on lens

                    7.    Star Filters

                            a.    Grooved surface creates points of light with streaks radiating out

                    8.    Color Filters

                            a.    Absorb certain wavelengths, leaving others unaffected

                            b.    On B&W film, color filters provide contrast control; lighten and darken tones

                            c.    On color film, can create multitude of effects

                    9.    Day for Night

                            a.    Shooting during day using filters and underexposure to create illusion of nighttime

                            b.    Works best on B&W film, using red or yellow filters to darken the sky

            E.    Deep Focus Cinematography

                    1.    Originated in 1930s

                            a.    Fast lenses and advances in lighting technology made it possible

                            b.    Gregg Toland was the pioneer working with William Wyler

                            c.    Later, Toland teamed with Orson Welles to film Citizen Kane using technique

                    2.    Sets built with multiple planes of depth

                            a.    Lenses and settings allow all planes to stay in focus so several levels of meaning can be portrayed at once

                                    i.    Snowball scene in Citizen Kane

V.    Titles and Terms

        A.    Director of Photography (DP)

                1.    Responsible for all aspects of photographic process

                        a.    Confers with Director from beginning

                        b.    Works with Director to create storyboards in drawings, photographs or computer images

                        c.    Responsible for camera placement, movement and lighting setup

        B.    Crew

                1.    Camera Operator

                        a.    Responsible for operation and maintenance of camera

                2.    Focus Puller

                        a.    Measures distances, marks, and moves focus ring on lens

                3.    Assistant Camera Operator

                        a.    Records details of Shots

                4.    Gaffer

                        a.    Responsible for tasks involving lighting and electrical needs

                5.    Best Boy

                        a.    Crew member who assists the gaffer in managing lighting and electrical crews

                6.    Second Unit

                        a.    Used for filming at remote location or insert shots 

                7.    Video-assist

                        a.    Video monitor that records action and allows directors to see what the shot looks like on screen

                8.    Dailies

                        a.    Film footage printed on day it was shot and projected for production team to see

VI,    Film Stock

        A.    Characteristics

                1.    Emulsion

                        a.    Light-sensitive chemical layer

                2.    Base

                        a.    Flexible support material for emulsion

                        b.    Originally Cellulose Nitrate (extremely flammable)

                        c.    Replaced in 1950s by Cellulose Triacetate

                3.    Guage

                        a.    Size measured in mm horizontally

                4.    Speed

                        a.    Measure of film stock's sensitivity to light

                                i.    Measured by index number called ASA or DIN

                                ii.    Higher number is more sensitive

                        b.    High speed film is often used for low light levels or fast-moving subjects

                                i.      Usually has grainier image

                                ii.    Sometimes used to give documentary feel (like in Citizen Kane)

                        c.    Low speed film is used under optimal lighting conditions like on soundstage

                                i.    Usually results in very high quality prints

                5.    Grain

                        a.    Suspended particles of silver or color-sensitive grains in emulsion layer

        B.    Light and Exposure

                1.    Exposure is the amount of light striking the emulsion layer of film stock

                2.    When shutter is open, light passes through aperture of the lens and strikes the film

                3.    Aperture can be changed like the iris of an eye to allow more or less light into camera

                4.    "Appropriate" exposure captures sufficient detail in both bright and dark areas of the film

                5.    Overexposure occurs when more light than is require to produce an image strikes the film stock

                        a.    Causes high contrast, glaring light and washed-out shadows

                        b.    Steven Soderbergh often overexposes to show the overpowering sunlight of places like Florida

                6.    Underexposure occurs when too little light strikes the emulsion

                        a.    Low contrast

                        b.    Dark areas appear very dense and dark

        C.    Film Stock and Color

                1.    B&W and Color have always existed

                        a.    Early B&W was tinted with night scenes blue, candle scenes brown, love scenes magenta

                        b.    By the 1920s, 80% of film prints were tinted

                2.    Use of film caused trademark looks for studios

                        a.    MGM overexposed film then PULLED it (underdeveloped) creating pearly gray look

                        b.    20th Century Fox used faster film and stopped down the lens, increasing depth of field and clarity of images

                3.    Color film developed in 1030s, but wasn't perfected until after WWII

                        a.    Developed to compete with B&W television

                4.    In 1922, Technicolor Corporation developed 2-strip additive process

                        a.    2 strips of negative film were exposed using beam splitter in camera, printed separately on red and green layer of film stock

                                and cemented together for projection.

                        b.    In 1928, Technicolor perfected dye transfer process called imbibition printing which became basis for 3-color dye transfer process

                                the standard until the 1950s.  Used 3 strips of negative film from which separate color matrices were made and transferred onto

                                single strip of film

        D.    Wide Film

        E.    Processing

VII.    Special Visual Effects

        A.    Manipulating Image

        B.    Creating Scene Transitions: Titles and Credits

        C.    Optical and Digital Compositing

        D.    CGI

        E.    Adding and Subtracting Frames

VIII.    Digital Cinema: Post Production

 IX.    Digital Cinematography and Film Style

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